Indigenous peoples and mycology: a heritage of traditions and knowledge

When we think of mycology, the science that studies fungi, our minds often run to modern laboratories, microscopes, and scientific publications, but never to indigenous peoples. However, there exists another immense body of knowledge, perhaps even more ancient and deeply rooted, preserved by ancient peoples worldwide. These communities, for millennia in symbiosis with their territories, have developed a holistic and sophisticated understanding of the fungal kingdom, which goes far beyond the simple distinction between edible and poisonous species.

Their traditional knowledge about fungi embraces medicine, spirituality, ecology, and material culture, representing an invaluable heritage that is unfortunately increasingly at risk. This article aims to undertake a detailed journey across the continents, to explore the complex and fascinating relationship between native populations and fungi, revealing a world of knowledge that has much to teach modern science.

Indigenous peoples: a holistic approach to fungal knowledge

Before delving into specific examples, it is essential to understand the philosophical and cultural context in which indigenous mycological knowledge is embedded. For native communities, fungi are not isolated entities, but integral components of a living, interconnected ecosystem. This holistic approach contrasts with the often fragmented and specialized view of Western science.

Knowledge is not just a collection of data, but a practical, spiritual, and ritual wisdom, passed down orally through generations. It is a science based on millennia of observation, adaptation, and a deep respect for nature, where every element, including the human, has its place and function.

The perception of fungi in the indigenous universe: more than a simple organism

For many indigenous cultures, fungi are not simply food or medicine. They are often seen as spiritual beings, messengers, or as a bridge between the underworld and the surface. In some Mesoamerican traditions, hallucinogenic mushrooms, like those of the genus Psilocybe, are considered "flesh of the gods", tools for communicating with the divine and accessing higher dimensions of knowledge. In other cultures, fungi are ecological indicators: their presence, absence, or abundance provides valuable information about the health of the forest, soil fertility, or the approach of certain seasons. This multidimensional perception transforms the fungus from an object of study into an active subject in a complex network of relationships, a vision that modern ecological science is only beginning to understand now, with concepts like the "mycorrhizal network".

Methods of knowledge transmission 

Knowledge about fungi is preserved and transmitted primarily through oral tradition. There are no written manuals or formal taxonomies. Learning is a practical, experiential, and social process. Children accompany adults during foraging, learning to recognize species by observing, touching, and sometimes tasting them under strict supervision.

Stories, myths, and songs become vehicles for memorizing important characteristics, such as growth habitat, associations with specific trees, or fruiting periods. This system, although fragile in the face of globalization and the disappearance of native languages, has the advantage of being dynamic and adaptable, allowing knowledge to evolve with environmental changes.

Traditional knowledge by continent

The relationship between indigenous peoples and fungi manifests in incredibly diverse ways depending on the ecosystem, history, and culture of each people. Let us now examine, continent by continent, some of the most significant and documented examples of this ancient knowledge.

The Americas: from sacred visions to medicinal cures

The American continent hosts one of the richest and most documented mycological traditions in the world, especially in the Mesoamerican and Amazonian regions.

Mesoamerica: the sacred mushrooms and communication with the Divine

In Mexico, peoples like the Mazatec, Mixtec, and Zapotec have a long, unbroken history of using psychoactive mushrooms, mainly the species Psilocybe mexicana and Psilocybe cubensis. For these communities, the mushrooms, called "nti si tho" or "hianthe" respectively, are not recreational drugs but sacred tools for divination and healing. The ceremonies, led by a shaman or a curandera, take place in a precise ritual context, with prayers, songs, and a well-defined therapeutic intention. The ethnomycologist R. Gordon Wasson was the first Westerner to formally document one of these ceremonies in the 1950s, bringing a cultural heritage of inestimable value to the attention of the academic world. Beyond the psychoactive ones, these populations know and use dozens of other species of edible mushrooms, classifying them based on complex morphological, ecological, and organoleptic characteristics.

The Amazon: a hidden pharmacopoeia in the forest

The hundreds of Amazonian tribes possess an encyclopedic knowledge of the forest's biodiversity, including its fungal diversity. Although less studied than the Mesoamerican one, Amazonian mycology is predominantly medicinal. Parasitic fungi, like those of the genus Ophiocordyceps (similar to the famous Himalayan Cordyceps sinensis), are used to treat a wide range of ailments. The "Yanomamö" fungus, studied by anthropologists, is used by the eponymous peoples to prepare an ointment for wounds. The main challenge in documenting this knowledge is the rapid disappearance of both the forests and the cultures that inhabit them.

Asia: millennia-old traditions between the Himalayas and Siberia

The Asian continent boasts some of the oldest and most commercially known mycological traditions in the world, where indigenous knowledge has often intertwined with formalized medical systems like Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) and Ayurveda.

Cordyceps Sinensis and the Himalayan peoples

Perhaps the most emblematic example is that of the fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis, known as "Yartsa Gunbu" in Tibetan ("summer grass, winter worm"). This fungus, a parasite of a caterpillar, has been for centuries a pillar of Tibetan and Chinese traditional medicine, where it is considered a powerful tonic, aphrodisiac, and remedy for a multitude of diseases. Its collection, in the high Himalayan pastures, is a crucial economic activity for local communities like the Tibetans and Sherpas. The know-how to locate and harvest Cordyceps is a deeply rooted traditional knowledge, passed down through generations. However, increasing global demand has led to overexploitation, raising serious questions about sustainability and the fair distribution of economic benefits.

Siberian Russia and the use of hallucinogenic mushrooms

In Siberia, shamans of peoples like the Chukchi and Koryak have historically used the Amanita muscaria mushroom (the famous red mushroom with white spots) to enter trance states and travel spiritually. Unlike the Mesoamerican psilocybin mushrooms, the active compound in Amanita muscaria is muscimol. The consumption practices, often indirect (such as drinking the urine of someone who has ingested the mushroom, where the active compound is still present but the side effects are attenuated), demonstrate a deep experimental pharmacological understanding.

Africa, Oceania and Europe: subtle and diverse knowledge

Even in Africa, Oceania, and Europe itself, native populations possess a rich body of mycological knowledge, although often less publicized.

Africa: the Bantu and termite mushrooms

In Central and Southern Africa, Bantu-speaking peoples have for centuries harvested and consumed fungi of the genus Termitomyces, which grow exclusively on termite mounds. This is one of the most extraordinary mutualistic relationships in the natural world: the fungi help digest cellulose for the termites, and they, in return, cultivate and protect the fungus. Local communities have detailed knowledge of which species are edible and the harvesting periods, integrating this precious protein source into their diet.

Oceania: the Maori and knowledge of bioluminescent fungi

The Maori of New Zealand, like many other Pacific cultures, have a rich oral tradition that includes references to the natural world. Although their diet is not historically rich in fungi, they possess knowledge of specific species, including bioluminescent fungi, which may have been used to illuminate paths in the dense forest or in ritual contexts.

Europe: the forgotten traditions of Baltic and Scandinavian peoples

Even in Europe, before the standardization of scientific knowledge, local mycological traditions existed. The Sami people of Lapland used the fungus Fomitopsis officinalis (Laricifomes officinalis) as medicine, while in various Baltic and Russian regions, the use of Amanita muscaria in shamanic contexts was widespread, similar to Siberia. These traditions have been largely lost with Christianization and urbanization.

A great reference point for Italian scientific literature on the subject is the Italian Botanical Society, which publishes research on ethnobotany and, by extension, ethnomycology.

The impact of modernity and the loss of traditional knowledge

The heritage of indigenous mycological knowledge is more endangered today than ever. A combination of factors is leading to a rapid erosion of this knowledge, with potentially disastrous consequences for both native cultures and global science.

Threats to indigenous knowledge

The main threats include:

• Deforestation and habitat loss: the destruction of tropical, boreal, and other primary ecosystems erases not only the fungi but also the living "laboratory" where knowledge is learned and applied.
• Globalization and cultural homogenization: young people in indigenous communities are increasingly attracted to urban and globalized lifestyles, losing interest in the traditions and languages of their ancestors. Without transmission, knowledge dies with the elders.
• Overexploitation of resources: as seen with Cordyceps, global market demand can lead to unsustainable harvesting, which depletes fungal resources and undermines the very material basis of traditional knowledge.
• Biopiracy: often, pharmaceutical and agri-food companies appropriate traditional knowledge about fungi (e.g., about a medicinal species) to develop commercial products, without the consent of the communities and without them receiving fair compensation.

Biopiracy: the theft of millennia-old knowledge

Biopiracy represents a direct ethical and economic threat. It happens when researchers or companies take samples of fungi (or any other organism) from indigenous territories, isolate the active compounds based on traditional indications, patent the compound, and make huge profits, without recognizing or rewarding the community that provided the fundamental knowledge. This is not only unfair but also violates international conventions like the Nagoya Protocol, which regulates access to genetic resources and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits. It is crucial that any research involving traditional knowledge is based on the Free, Prior and Informed Consent (FPIC) of the involved communities.

Ethnomycology: the bridge between traditional knowledge and modern science

Facing this loss, a scientific discipline of crucial importance is born: ethnomycology. This field of study, at the crossroads of anthropology, biology, and ecology, is dedicated precisely to documenting, understanding, and conserving traditional mycological knowledge.

Research methodologies in ethnomycology

The ethnomycologist is not a simple sample collector. Their work is deeply interdisciplinary and requires an ethical and respectful approach. Methodologies include:

• Structured and unstructured interviews: dialogues with elders, curanderos, shamans, and foragers to gather information on names, uses, and properties of fungi.
• Guided field walks: accompanying local foragers during outings, to directly observe identification and harvesting methods and to collect voucher specimens, which will then be dried and deposited in a herbarium for scientific identification.
• Taxonomic and phytochemical analysis: identifying the collected species using molecular biology techniques (DNA barcoding) and analyzing their chemical components to scientifically validate traditional uses (e.g., antibiotic or antitumor activity).

This research has a dual objective: on one hand, to save a unique cultural heritage from oblivion; on the other, to provide modern science with valuable leads for the discovery of new drugs, industrial enzymes, or edible species. The rainforest, for example, is an immense reservoir of fungal diversity still unexplored, and indigenous knowledge is the map for navigating this labyrinth of biodiversity.

Indigenous peoples: a possible collaboration respecting the tribes

The journey through the mycological knowledge of indigenous peoples reveals a world of unexpected depth and complexity. It is not a set of folkloric "beliefs," but true systems of knowledge, the result of millennia of observation, experimentation, and adaptation. This knowledge teaches us that fungi are much more than a simple ingredient or an organism to classify: they are fundamental ecological partners, powerful allies for health, and potent tools for exploring human consciousness.

The challenge for the future is to build a lasting and respectful bridge between traditional knowledge and modern science. We must move from an extraction model to a collaboration model, where indigenous communities are not just "providers of information," but equal partners in research, conservation, and the sustainable management of our planet's fungal resources. Protecting their knowledge does not only mean preserving the past, but ensuring a richer, more sustainable, and more aware future for all of humanity.